LONGHORIZON.BLUE

References

The papers and monitoring programs behind these pages, with a note on what each supports: the methods behind the map's fields first, then each waterway. As BibTeX: references.bib.

Methods behind the map's fields

  1. Chen, C., Beardsley, R. and Cowles, G. (2006). An Unstructured Grid, Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Model (FVCOM) System. Oceanography 19(1), 78–89. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2006.92

    The FVCOM system and its coastal forecast applications, including NECOFS.

  2. Chen, C., Liu, H. and Beardsley, R. C. (2003). An Unstructured Grid, Finite-Volume, Three-Dimensional, Primitive Equations Ocean Model: Application to Coastal Ocean and Estuaries. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 20(1), 159–186. doi:10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<0159:AUGFVT>2.0.CO;2

    FVCOM, the unstructured-grid model behind the currents layer.

  3. Chin, T. M., Vazquez-Cuervo, J. and Armstrong, E. M. (2017). A multi-scale high-resolution analysis of global sea surface temperature. Remote Sensing of Environment 200, 154–169. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2017.07.029

    The MUR sea surface temperature analysis (the SST layer).

  4. Hu, C., Lee, Z. and Franz, B. (2012). Chlorophyll a algorithms for oligotrophic oceans: A novel approach based on three‐band reflectance difference. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 117(C1). doi:10.1029/2011JC007395

    Background: chlorophyll-a retrieval from satellite ocean colour (a band-difference algorithm).

  5. NASA/JPL (2015). GHRSST Level 4 MUR Global Foundation Sea Surface Temperature Analysis (v4.1). NASA Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center. doi:10.5067/GHGMR-4FJ04

    The MUR SST dataset (v4.1), served through NOAA CoastWatch.

  6. Wang, M., Son, S. and Harding, L. W. (2009). Retrieval of diffuse attenuation coefficient in the Chesapeake Bay and turbid ocean regions for satellite ocean color applications. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 114(C10). doi:10.1029/2009JC005286

    Background: retrieving the diffuse attenuation coefficient Kd(490) in turbid coastal and estuarine water.

Long Island Sound

The buoy observations at the heart of the Long Island Sound page come from LISICOS, the Long Island Sound Integrated Coastal Observing System at the University of Connecticut, and from the work of James O'Donnell and his colleagues there.

The observing system

  1. LISICOS, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut. Long Island Sound Integrated Coastal Observing System. Accessed 2026-10-11

    The buoys behind this page: temperature, salinity, oxygen, turbidity and weather.

The Sound

  1. O’Donnell, J., Wilson, R. E., Lwiza, K. et al. (2013). The Physical Oceanography of Long Island Sound. In Latimer, J. S., Tedesco, M. A., Swanson, R. L. et al. (eds.), Long Island Sound: Prospects for the Urban Sea, pp. 79–158. Springer New York. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6126-5_3

    Circulation, stratification and mixing of the Sound: the standard overview.

  2. Shin, Y., Cifuentes‐Lorenzen, A., Howard Strobel, M. M. and O’Donnell, J. (2021). Waves in Western Long Island Sound: A Fetch‐Limited Coastal Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 126(2), e2020JC016468. doi:10.1029/2020JC016468

    Waves in the western Sound are fetch-limited, larger under easterly winds than westerlies.

  3. Latimer, J. S., Tedesco, M. A., Swanson, R. L. et al. (eds.) (2014). Long Island Sound: Prospects for the Urban Sea. Springer Series on Environmental Management. Springer New York. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6126-5

    The volume containing both chapters above.

  4. Lewis, R. (2013). The Geology of Long Island Sound. In Latimer, J. S., Tedesco, M. A., Swanson, R. L. et al. (eds.), Long Island Sound: Prospects for the Urban Sea, pp. 47–77. Springer New York. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6126-5_2

    Glacial origin of the Sound and the bluffs of Long Island's north shore.

  5. U.S. Geological Survey. Open-File Report 2010-1007: geologic setting of Long Island Sound. Accessed 2026-10-11

    The glacial moraine and the eroding bluffs of Long Island's north shore.

Oxygen and hypoxia

  1. Anderson, T. H. and Taylor, G. T. (2001). Nutrient Pulses, Plankton Blooms, and Seasonal Hypoxia in Western Long Island Sound. Estuaries 24(2), 228. doi:10.2307/1352947

    Nutrient pulses, plankton blooms and seasonal hypoxia in the western Sound.

  2. Torgersen, T., DeAngelo, E. and O’Donnell, J. (1997). Calculations of Horizontal Mixing Rates Using 222 Rn and the Controls on Hypoxia in Western Long Island Sound, 1991. Estuaries 20(2), 328. doi:10.2307/1352348

    Horizontal mixing and the physical controls on western-Sound hypoxia.

  3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2023). Report on the Environment: Hypoxia in the Gulf of America and Long Island Sound. Last updated October 4, 2023. Accessed 2026-10-11

    The national indicator for Long Island Sound hypoxia, with its history since 1987.

  4. Wilson, R. E., Swanson, R. L. and Crowley, H. A. (2008). Perspectives on long‐term variations in hypoxic conditions in western Long Island Sound. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 113(C12). doi:10.1029/2007JC004693

    Long-term variation of hypoxia in the western Sound.

Monitoring programs

  1. Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection. Long Island Sound Water Quality and Hypoxia Monitoring Program. Accessed 2026-10-11

    Sound-wide ship surveys since 1991: up to 48 stations every two weeks in summer, with nutrients and plankton.

  2. Interstate Environmental Commission. Western Long Island Sound hypoxia surveys. Accessed 2026-10-11

    Weekly summer surveys at 22 western-Sound stations: oxygen, turbidity, Secchi depth, and nutrients and chlorophyll at about half of them.

  3. Long Island Sound Partnership. Hypoxia: area and duration in Long Island Sound. Accessed 2026-10-11

    The EPA National Estuary Program for the Sound: the official hypoxia indicator, nitrogen targets, and how hypoxia forms.

  4. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. New York Harbor Water Quality Report (Harbor Survey). Accessed 2026-10-11

    Since 1909: fecal coliform bacteria, oxygen, chlorophyll and clarity in the harbor, including the East River and the western Sound's city waters.

  5. Save the Sound. How's the water: water quality monitoring programs. Accessed 2026-10-11

    Weekly bacteria (Enterococcus) monitoring at about 65 western-Sound sites, and the Unified Water Study of oxygen, chlorophyll and turbidity in the Sound's bays and harbors.

Next waterway

If you work on, study or monitor a coastal water and would like to help bring its observations and academic literature here, write to hello@longhorizon.blue.